ArticleBMC ecology and evolution2026
Persistence in ecological footprint inequality across European Union countries: evidence from unit root tests.
Article in BMC ecology and evolution, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
5 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
To develop effective and equitable emission reduction policies in the European Union, it is necessary to consider not only the level of environmental inequality but also its persistence over time. Therefore, examining the stationarity properties of inequality indicators is important for determining whether such inequalities are temporary or permanent. Accordingly, this study analyzes the stationarity characteristics of ecological footprint inequality in the European Union for the period 1961-2024. Ecological footprint inequality is measured using three complementary inequality indices: the Gini coefficient, the Theil-T index, and the Atkinson index. In addition to traditional unit root tests such as ADF, PP, and KPSS, the analysis employs Fourier-based tests, structural break unit root tests, and the artificial intelligence-based ARNN-ADF test to examine the stationarity structure of the series. Furthermore, the ARFIMA model is employed as a robustness check to assess the long-memory properties of ecological footprint inequality. The findings of this study are test-dependent. Conventional unit root tests suggest level stationarity, whereas Fourier-based, structural-break and nonlinear tests provide stronger evidence of persistence. ARFIMA results further indicate a stationary long-memory process operating close to the non-stationarity boundary. These findings suggest that shocks to ecological footprint inequality are not purely transitory but tend to persist over long periods. Overall, the results highlight the need for structural and long-term policies to reduce ecological footprint inequalities across European Union countries.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.