A global analysis of the inclusion of wildlife in national action plans for antimicrobial resistance.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global health threat to humans, domestic animals and wildlife. In response, the WHO endorsed the AMR Global Action Plan in 2015 to guide the development of national action plans (NAPs). NAPs articulate priorities, sectoral roles and implementation strategies to address AMR. Although the wildlife sector has been noted to be minimally included in these documents, the extent and nature of its inclusion remain unclear. This is concerning given wildlife's role at the human-animal-environment interface in AMR dynamics. Objectives: To assess the extent and context of wildlife inclusion in AMR NAPs. Methods: We reviewed 177 AMR NAPs available in the WHO library. Each document was searched for the terms 'wildlife' or 'wild', and the extracted excerpts were analysed using an inductive thematic analysis to determine the context in which wildlife was referenced. Results: Wildlife was minimally included in the analysed NAPs, with only 11% (20/177) containing wildlife-related references. Fifty-eight mentions were identified across documents, appearing within One Health definitions, proposed actions, document headings and governance structures. Surveillance was the most proposed wildlife-related activity; however, detailed implementation strategies were absent. Uganda was the only country whose NAP explicitly incorporated a wildlife-associated institution within its governance framework. Conclusions: Wildlife is minimally included in AMR NAPs, with references predominantly conceptual rather than operational. The absence of defined implementation mechanisms undermines effective One Health integration and risks weakening comprehensive AMR responses.