Evidence map›Paper›PMID 42251438›Full record

ArticleBiology of sex differences2026

Gene × sex interactions on cognition in the Philadelphia neurodevelopmental cohort.

Josephine Mollon, Emma E M Knowles, Samuel R Mathias, Amanda Rodrigue, Ruben C Gur, Juan Manuel Peralta, Daniel J Weiner, Elise B Robinson, Armin Raznahan, Raquel E Gur and 3 more

Abstract read
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Article in Biology of sex differences, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
0citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

0 citing papers in PubMed.

No citing paper in PubMed yet.

4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

13 authors.

Josephine MollonDepartment of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. josephine.mollon@childrens.harvard.edu.
Emma E M KnowlesDepartment of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
Samuel R MathiasDepartment of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
Amanda RodrigueDepartment of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
Ruben C GurBrain Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, Penn-CHOP Lifespan Brain Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Juan Manuel PeraltaSchool of Medicine, South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas of the Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX, USA.
Daniel J WeinerAnalytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
Elise B RobinsonAnalytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
Armin RaznahanSection On Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA.
Raquel E GurBrain Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, Penn-CHOP Lifespan Brain Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
John BlangeroSchool of Medicine, South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas of the Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX, USA.
Laura AlmasyDepartment of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, Penn-CHOP Lifespan Brain Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
David C GlahnDepartment of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

backgroundSmall differences between females and males in cognitive abilities have been consistently reported, but the factors underlying these sex differences remain unclear. Social and cultural factors are thought to play a key role, but studies on this topic have been inconclusive. Examination of genetic factors may shed some light on the mechanisms underlying cognitive sex differences.

methodsUsing data from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, a large, general population sample of individuals aged 8 to 21 years old (N = 4,694), we tested for sex differences in the genetic factors (i.e., Gene × Sex interactions) underlying cognitive ability. Participants completed the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery, which consists of 14 tests designed to capture accuracy and speed in five domains: 1) executive function (abstraction and mental flexibility, attention, working memory), 2) episodic memory (verbal, facial, spatial), 3) complex cognition (verbal reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, spatial processing), 4) social cognition (emotion identification, emotion differentiation, age differentiation), and 5) speed (motor, sensorimotor). Composite domain scores were derived using confirmatory factor analysis, and general accuracy (g) and speed (gs) using principal component analysis.

resultsSmall sex differences were observed on most cognitive measures (standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.061-0.182). Males showed significantly higher genetic variance and lower environmental variance in executive (female σ

conclusionsWe observed small differences between females and males on most cognitive measures, as well as sex differences in heritability on some measures. Future studies are needed to delineate how environmental, genetic, and other biological factors jointly influence cognition.

Indexed as

CognitionSex CharacteristicsAdolescentChildCohort StudiesFemaleHumansMaleNeuropsychological TestsPhiladelphiaYoung Adult

Identifiers

PMID42251438
PMCPMC13251074

What OpenQuestion holds

Textmetadata
LicenceCC BY
Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.