Analysis of spatiotemporal characteristics and influencing factors of residents' physical activity in urban green spaces.

Introduction: Urban green spaces are important settings for residents' physical activity (PA), yet evidence remains limited on how park-based PA varies across time and space and how perceived environmental conditions are associated with PA-related outcomes. This study examines the spatiotemporal characteristics of PA in six typical urban parks in Zhengzhou, China, using a multi-source dataset. Methods: Data were collected through systematic field observations (18,650 valid activity records, geo-tagged via GPS), questionnaires (345 valid responses), and Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) comprising OpenStreetMap-sourced park boundary and facility data. These two data sources serve complementary but analytically distinct purposes: the observational and VGI data are used to document spatiotemporal patterns of park-based PA, while the questionnaire data provide the individual-level basis for examining associations between perceived environmental conditions and self-reported PA outcomes. GIS-based spatial analysis was used to identify activity hotspots and compare temporal and group-specific patterns. Questionnaire-based individual-level analyses were used to examine associations between perceived environmental conditions and PA-related outcomes. Results: Clear spatiotemporal differences were observed in park-based PA. Activity frequency was higher on weekends than on weekdays, middle-aged and older adults represented the largest share of observed park users, and activity peaked mainly during midday and evening periods. Spatially, PA hotspots were concentrated in leisure, fitness, and recreation zones, with differences across gender, age group, and activity intensity. The questionnaire-based individual-level analyses suggested that perceived safety, facility convenience, and environmental quality were positively associated with PA-related outcomes, whereas noise and crowding tended to show negative associations. Conclusion: Taken together, the spatiotemporal and individual-level findings indicate that park-based PA in Zhengzhou is associated with both temporal rhythms tied to daily work-rest cycles and perceived environmental conditions. Facility provision, perceived safety, and the management of noise and crowding emerge as particularly relevant factors for sustaining park use. These context-specific findings have practical implications for park design and management, though broader generalization requires research across more diverse urban settings.