ArticleBMC health services research2026
Characteristics, all-cause healthcare resource utilisation, and costs among high-risk adults with long COVID during Omicron predominance, 2022-2023: a retrospective cohort study using UK primary care data.
Article in BMC health services research, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundLong COVID, a diverse set of symptoms that persist after a minimum of 4 weeks from the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection, has posed substantial burden to the UK healthcare system. However, little is known about the clinical and economic burden during Omicron predominance, and further, the burden on social care.
methodsA retrospective study was conducted using UK primary care electronic records of adults with confirmed and/or probable acute COVID-19 (index) from The Health Improvement Network between 09/2022 and 05/2023 and eligible for COVID-19 vaccination. Long COVID was identified if patients had ≥ 1 long COVID signs/symptoms or long COVID diagnostic or referral code ≥ 4 weeks post-infection. Baseline characteristics, healthcare resource utilisation (HCRU) and costs, and care home admission rates and costs (rates per 100 patient-months (PM) and costs per-patient-per-month (PPPM)), were described in those with long COVID. Outcomes were also stratified by age and COVID-19 vaccine eligibility.
resultsOf 5,661 eligible patients, 2,772 (49.0%) had long COVID; of these, very few (0.8%; n = 23) had a long COVID diagnostic or referral code. Patients with long COVID had high primary and secondary care HCRU: primary care consultation rate of 160.6 per 100 PM; mean primary care consultation cost of £82 PPPM; and hospitalisation rate of 7.1 per 100 PM. In stratified analyses, HCRU rates and primary care costs were higher in older age groups than the younger age groups, and separately, among those eligible for two booster doses than those eligible for only one booster dose during the respiratory virus season.
conclusionThis study highlights the healthcare burden of long COVID during the UK Omicron period, including higher primary care use, hospitalisations, and costs, particularly in older adults and those at high-risk eligible for two boosters, underscoring the need for targeted strategies to address long COVID.
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