Discreteness, Computation, and Rules of Life for Self-Organization Dynamics Beyond Equilibrium.

Living systems self-organize in ways that conventional physical frameworks based on forces, energies, and continuous fields cannot fully capture. Processes like gene regulation and cellular decision-making involve rule-based logic and computational interactions. Here, the concept of non-equilibrium capacity (NEC) is introduced to denote the finite capacity of living systems to generate and sustain life-associated dynamics-the very capacity that defines viability-and whose irreversible loss constitutes death. I argue that two lines of inquiry are especially promising for understanding why this capacity is inevitably lost. First, experiments that slow or suspend all cellular processes reveal "low speed limits" below which life collapses. Second, generalized cellular automata, in which cells interact over diffusion-defined neighborhoods and follow discrete rules, provide a framework to understand how order emerges or persists. Together, these approaches suggest a new grammar of biology that complements energy-based physics and explains how living systems sustain and ultimately lose their NEC.