Activation parenting in mothers and fathers: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Evolutionary-based theories of parenting, such as activation relationship theory, suggest that fathers may be more likely than mothers to engage in activation parenting, that is, interactions designed to stimulate and challenge children within acceptable limits. However, available evidence is mixed in identifying differences between mothers and fathers in activation parenting. Using two meta-analyses, we examined 1) mean differences and 2) associations in activation parenting exhibited by partnered mothers and fathers. The meta-analyses included 40 studies (38 unique samples, 76.3% collected in North America) with a total of 3,607 fathers and 3,707 mothers, and their children (M = 41.4 months; range = 3 months to 19.9 years). Most parents were white and from a mid-high socioeconomic status. The first meta-analysis showed that fathers displayed higher activation parenting than mothers, with a small effect size: g = .27, 95% CI [.17, .37], p < .001. Differences were larger in studies examining rough-and-tumble play. A strong correlation between partnered parents' activation parenting levels emerged in the second meta-analysis: r = .33, 95% CI [.19, .45], p < .001. These results highlight the importance of continuing research on activation parenting across diverse types of parents.