A scoping review of theoretical and measurement approaches to women's empowerment in low-and middle-income countries' capacity-building interventions.

Women's empowerment is critical for achieving gender equality and sustainable development in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs). Capacity-building interventions, such as vocational training, microfinance, and digital literacy programmes, are frequently employed to foster empowerment. However, wide variation exists in how empowerment is defined, theorised, and measured, limiting comparability across studies. This scoping review mapped the conceptual foundations, theoretical frameworks, and measurement approaches used in capacity-building interventions for women entrepreneurs in LMICs. The review followed Arksey and O'Malley's framework and was reported in line with PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and JSTOR, complemented by grey literature from major development agencies (2010-2024). Eligible studies focused on capacity-building interventions targeting women entrepreneurs in LMICs. Two reviewers independently screened and extracted data, which were synthesised thematically. Of 11,109 records identified, 25 met inclusion criteria. Most studies were cross-sectional, conducted in sub-Saharan Africa (48%) and South Asia (32%). While 76% defined empowerment, 60% did not employ any explicit theoretical or conceptual framework. Among those that did, frameworks, such as Kabeer's, Longwe's, and Malhotra et al.'s were used inconsistently. Economic empowerment was the most frequently assessed domain, often measured through income or business performance, while social, political, and psychological dimensions were seldom examined. Indicators were heterogeneous and largely self-reported. Conceptual ambiguity and inconsistent measurement hinder progress in women's empowerment research in LMICs. Future studies should adopt theoretically grounded, multidimensional, and context-sensitive frameworks to capture empowerment as a dynamic process beyond economic gains.