ArticleBMC public health2026
Modelling the multidimensional structure of workplace violence against emergency medical technicians and mitigation strategies in Ghana: a confirmatory factor analysis.
Article in BMC public health, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundEmergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) are routinely exposed to workplace violence, yet empirical evidence from low- and middle-income countries remains limited. This study examined the multidimensional structure of workplace violence against EMTs in Ghana, evaluated perceived mitigation strategies using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach and explored EMTs' perceptions of workplace violence mitigation strategies.
methodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted among 336 EMTs across three regions of Ghana. Workplace violence was measured using 23 items, and mitigation strategies using 10 items. A two-step approach was employed: an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to ascertain the underlying factor structure, followed by CFA to validate the identified structure from the EFA. We used a weighted least-squares mean-and-variance-adjusted estimator appropriate for ordinal data. Model reliability, convergent validity, and inter-construct relationships were assessed.
resultsThe CFA supported a three-factor structure comprising verbal/non-physical abuse, physical assault, and severe violent attacks, with strong internal consistency (α = 0.812-0.939) and high convergent validity (AVE > 0.75). The study revealed strong structural covariance between physical assault and severe violent attacks (r = 0.668), moderate covariance between physical assault and verbal abuse (r = 0.439), and weaker but significant covariance between severe attacks and verbal abuse (r = 0.347). Most respondents (84%) expressed high concern about workplace violence. Aggression management, defensive tactical training, and resilience training were perceived as the most effective mitigation strategies.
conclusionWorkplace violence against EMTs in Ghana is multidimensional and highly interrelated. Interventions should prioritize early de-escalation, organizational protection mechanisms, and national EMS violence-prevention policies. Addressing verbal and physical abuse concurrently may prevent escalation into severe violence.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.