ArticleBMC genomics2026
Whole-genome analyses illuminate demographic history and lineage differentiation of polymorphic swallowtail butterfly Papilio bootes.
Article in BMC genomics, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundThe polymorphic swallowtail butterfly Papilio bootes displays pronounced subspecific differentiation and extensive wing-pattern variation, offering an exceptional system to investigate lineage diversification and phenotypic evolution. However, the genetic mechanisms underlying its intraspecific divergence and morphological polymorphism remain poorly understood.
resultsWe assembled a chromosome-level reference genome for P. bootes and performed whole-genome resequencing of 66 individuals from six subspecies and 12 outgroup P. janaka. Population genomic analyses delineated three major genetic lineages (northern, central, southern), whose divergences aligned with Pleistocene glacial cycles. Historical hybridization was evident, with the nigricauda group originating from admixture between dealbatus and rubicundus (east) populations. The Z chromosome exhibited significantly elevated differentiation and selective sweep signatures, underscoring its role in early intraspecific divergence. Comparative analyses between black-winged and white-spotted morphs identified candidate genomic regions containing spalt and fpps, two genes with known links to wing pigmentation and melanin-associated processes, that may be associated with wing-pattern polymorphism in this species.
conclusionsOur study demonstrates how climatic oscillations, hybridization, rapid evolution of sex chromosomes, and natural selection have jointly shaped lineage diversification and adaptive wing-pattern evolution in P. bootes, offering new insights into the genomic architecture of speciation and phenotypic diversification in Papilio butterflies.
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