Influence of parenting style on the self-esteem of adolescents and the factors associated with low self-esteem: An institutional based cross-sectional study in Tokha municipality, Nepal.

Adolescence is a crucial developmental phase where self-esteem significantly impacts mental health and life outcomes. Low self-esteem is associated with depression, academic struggles, and risky behaviors. Parenting style plays a key role in shaping self-esteem, though its effects vary across cultural contexts. Despite robust global evidence, empirical research on parenting style and adolescent self-esteem in Nepal remains limited. This study addresses this gap by examining the association between perceived parenting styles, socio-demographic factors, and self-esteem among adolescents in urban Nepal. This cross-sectional study was conducted among 343 adolescent students in grades 9 and 10 in the schools of Tokha municipality using probability sampling. Self-esteem and perceived parenting styles were assessed by using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Perceived Parenting Style Scale. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, univariable and multivariable logistic regression, and spearman correlation at a significance level of 0.05 to identify factors associated with low self-esteem. The mean age (±S.D.) of the respondents was 15.3 (±1.0) years. One in six adolescents (16.3%) had low self-esteem. Authoritative parenting was positively correlated with self-esteem (r = 0.33, p < 0.01), whereas authoritarian (r = -0.32, p < 0.01) and permissive (r = -0.25, p < 0.01) parenting showed negative correlations. Older students were less likely to have low self-esteem (aOR: 0.7; 95% CI: 0.5-0.9). Conversely, students from private schools (aOR: 2.1; 95% CI: 1.1-4.2) and those whose fathers had less than a secondary education (aOR: 3.8; 95% CI: 1.9-7.4) were more likely to have low self-esteem. The major limitations of this study are the lack of representativeness in rural context, inability to address potential confounders and social desirability bias. Our findings suggest that authoritative parenting fosters higher self-esteem in adolescents, while authoritarian and permissive styles have negative effects. Future interventions should target younger adolescents, students from private schools, and those with fathers with lower educational attainment to promote healthy self-esteem development. Similarly, programs targeting parents to improve their knowledge, attitude and skills to practice authoritative way of parenting should be implemented.