ArticleForensic toxicology2026
Effects of 4-position substitutions of diphenidine on blood-brain barrier penetration and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens of rats.
Article in Forensic toxicology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
purposeDiphenidine (DPD) is a dissociative novel psychoactive substance (NPS) structurally related to phencyclidine and ketamine. Although DPD is legally regulated in Japan and several other countries, analogues sharing the core scaffold are not comprehensively regulated. Therefore, it is possible that analogues with minor scaffold modifications may continue to emerge. This study examined the effects of methoxy or hydroxy substitution at the 4-position of DPD on its blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration and dopamine release in the synaptic cleft.
methodsUsing in vivo brain microdialysis in freely moving unanesthetized rats, DPD, 4-methoxydiphenidine (4MeO-DPD), and 4-hydroxydiphenidine (4OH-DPD) (20 mg/kg, i.p. each) were administered, and concentrations in the nucleus accumbens and plasma were quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Extracellular dopamine levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. To investigate carrier-mediated BBB transport, verapamil (P-glycoprotein, P-gp, inhibitor) or diphenhydramine (organic cation transporter, OCT, inhibitor) was administered 1 h prior to each compound.
resultsDPD and its analogues showed distinct BBB penetration profiles, among which 4OH-DPD showed the highest brain concentrations and dopamine release. Verapamil but not diphenhydramine pretreatment significantly increased brain extracellular concentrations and prolonged elimination half-lives of all compounds, particularly 4MeO-DPD. P-gp inhibition elevated brain-to-plasma concentration ratios, indicating restricted BBB penetration by P-gp. The dopamine concentration profile was consistent with those observed for DPD and its analogues.
conclusionsThis study demonstrates that 4MeO-DPD and 4OH-DPD strongly elicit dopamine release compared with DPD. These findings show that P-gp regulates BBB penetration, offering important insights for the toxicological risk assessment for newly emerging NPS.
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