A Comparative Study of Signal Representations Methods and Deep Learning Architectures for PPG-Based Cuffless Blood Pressure Estimation.

Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and requires effective long-term monitoring. Photoplethysmography (PPG), acquired from wearable optical sensors, offers a convenient and non-invasive signal source for cuffless blood pressure (BP) estimation, but existing studies have mainly emphasized model architecture optimization, with limited systematic investigation of signal representation. This study systematically compares seven one-dimensional-to-two-dimensional signal transformation methods and evaluates multiple architectural variants for PPG-based cuffless BP estimation under a unified framework. Experiments were conducted using PPG and arterial BP signals from the UCI Open Blood Pressure Database. The best-performing configuration, based on continuous wavelet transform (CWT), achieved estimation errors of 3.80 ± 5.02 mmHg for systolic BP and 1.65 ± 2.70 mmHg for diastolic BP. Further real-world validation on 26 participants using an Omron cuff-based monitor as the reference showed good consistency, with correlation coefficients of R = 0.96 for SBP and R = 0.74 for DBP. The results demonstrate that appropriate signal representation, particularly CWT, plays a critical role in improving estimation accuracy and robustness, and may facilitate the development of wearable cuffless BP monitoring systems.