ArticleSensors (Basel, Switzerland)2026
Design and Experimental Evaluation of a Hierarchical LoRaMESH-Based Sensor Network with Wi-Fi HaLow Backhaul for Smart Agriculture.
Article in Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Large-scale smart agriculture requires reliable and energy-efficient wireless connectivity to support distributed environmental sensing across wide rural areas. However, existing low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies often face limitations in scalability, reliability, or infrastructure dependency when deployed in large agricultural fields. This study presents the design and experimental evaluation of a hierarchical sensor network architecture that integrates LoRaMESH for multi-hop sensing communication and Wi-Fi HaLow as a sub-GHz backhaul for data aggregation and cloud connectivity. In the proposed system, LoRaMESH forms intra-cluster sensor networks using a lightweight controlled flooding protocol, while Wi-Fi HaLow provides long-range IP-based connectivity between cluster gateways and a central access point. A real-world deployment covering approximately 2.5km×1km of agricultural area was implemented to evaluate the performance of the proposed architecture. Experimental results show that the LoRaMESH network achieves packet delivery ratios above 90% across one to three hops, with average end-to-end delays between 10.6 s and 13.3 s. The Wi-Fi HaLow backhaul demonstrates high reliability within short to medium distances, reaching 99.5% packet delivery ratio at 50 m and 89.68% at 200 m. Energy measurements further indicate that the sensor nodes consume only 21.19μA in sleep mode, enabling long-term battery-powered operation suitable for agricultural monitoring applications. These results indicate that the proposed hierarchical architecture is a feasible connectivity option for the tested large-scale agricultural sensing scenario. Because no side-by-side LoRaWAN or NB-IoT benchmark was conducted on the same testbed, the results should be interpreted as a field validation of the proposed architecture rather than as a direct experimental demonstration of superiority over alternative LPWAN systems.
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