ArticleOrthodontics & craniofacial research2026
Three Data-Driven Lip Soft-Tissue Phenotypes and Their Dento-Skeletal Associations in Orthodontic Patients: An Exploratory Unsupervised Learning Study.
Article in Orthodontics & craniofacial research, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundConventional facial diagnosis emphasizes skeletal and dental measures while lip features are assessed piecemeal. We aimed to identify data-driven lip soft-tissue phenotypes using unsupervised machine learning and examine their associations with skeletal and dental characteristics.
methodsIn a retrospective cross-sectional study, 10 lip measurements were extracted from standardized lateral cephalometric radiographs. Variables were z-score standardized and analysed using k-means clustering. Of 26 NbClust validation indices, 14 (53.8%) supported a three-cluster solution. Cluster stability was assessed by bootstrap resampling (B = 100) and 10-fold cross-validation. Post hoc feature importance was evaluated using PCA, Random Forest, SVM and XGBoost. A decision tree was trained and evaluated by 10-fold cross-validation repeated five times. Associations with craniofacial parameters were examined via within-class ANOVA, Cramér's V and hierarchical regression. Concordant pairings were defined as Cluster 1-Class I, Cluster 2-Class II and Cluster 3-Class III; all others were classified as discordant.
resultsThree phenotypes emerged-Thin-Straight (n = 638), Protrusive-Convex (n = 644) and Thick-Concave (n = 389)-showing broad correspondence with skeletal Classes I, II and III, respectively (Cramér's V = 0.386; overall concordance 52.8%). Lip protrusion and thickness were the primary discriminators (4/4 method consensus for UL_EP_mm, Cm_Sn_Ls, SSD; 3/4 for ULT). Within each skeletal class, all lip variables differed significantly across phenotypes (all p < 0.001; η
conclusionsUnsupervised learning identified three reproducible lip soft-tissue phenotypes that complement conventional dentoskeletal description by capturing within-class soft-tissue heterogeneity. The framework is exploratory and requires prospective external validation and outcome-based studies before clinical triage application.
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