Physical models and simulators in veterinary education: current status, learning impact, and future perspectives.

Veterinary education is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by the increasing integration of physical models and simulation-based training into academic curricula. This review highlights the evolving role of these tools in veterinary programs, encompassing both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The authors describe and categorize the differences between models and simulators and explore their global and temporal adoption. It describes the application across disciplines and their ability to replicate clinical scenarios, surgical procedures, and diagnostic techniques, also differentiating between students targeted (veterinary medicine training vs. veterinary surgeons). It then evaluates evidence for their educational effectiveness across veterinary disciplines, including comparative analyses with traditional teaching methods when available. Across multiple domains, model and simulation-based training demonstrates equivalent or superior short-term learning outcomes, particularly for anatomy, procedural skills, selected surgical techniques, and emergency interventions, while also offering benefits such as standardized learning experiences, individual satisfaction and reduced learner anxiety. The authors delve into the key challenges of physical models and simulation-based training as well as current limitations of these tools, and future perspectives in development and use of new models for teaching. Ultimately, simulation represents a paradigm shift in veterinary education, aligning ethical responsibility with academic excellence and clinical preparedness.