Plant-derived nanovesicles: the intelligent nanoplatforms for therapeutics and drug delivery.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-secreted phospholipid bilayer vesicles that play a key role in intercellular communication by transporting molecular cargo and engaging in surface-level signaling. Due to their intrinsic biological features, EVs not only reflect the functional attributes of their originating cells but also hold promise as both therapeutic agent and natural carriers for targeted delivery. In recent years, plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) containing bioactive molecules have attracted the attention of researchers because of their better biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, wide range of sources, and ability to act as natural therapeutic agents for diseases. PDNVs play an increasingly important role in human-plant interactions, as they are able to enter the human system and deliver effector molecules to cells, which in turn modulate cellular signaling pathways. PDNVs play a critical role in human health and disease. This review provides a comprehensive overview of PDNVs, encompassing their biogenesis, methods of isolation and purification, physicochemical characterization, stability, and storage strategies. It further explores their routes of administration, internalization, and biodistribution as therapeutic agents, highlighting their potential in the treatment of conditions such as inflammation, cancer, tissue regeneration, viral infections, liver and brain disorders, and osteoporosis. Lastly, the review examines current clinical applications of PDNVs and the key challenges hindering their broader implementation. We look forward to further exploration of the functions of PDNVs to facilitate their clinical translation and increase their benefits in humans.