Rural

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Emerging evidence suggests disparities in COPD outcomes between rural and urban populations, but no prior review has synthesised these differences globally. Five databases (Medline, Embase, Emcare, CINAHL and Cochrane Central) were searched in May 2025. Eligible peer-reviewed studies directly compared rural and urban populations in at least one of four measures of COPD burden: prevalence, symptom burden, exacerbations or mortality. Study quality was assessed and narrative synthesis was conducted due to heterogeneity in outcome measures. Of 1339 screened studies, 32 met inclusion criteria, spanning 13 countries. COPD prevalence was higher rurally in 83% (15/18) of studies, with 11/15 demonstrating statistical significance. This pattern was consistent across geographical distributions. Total exacerbation rates were higher rurally in 60% (3/5) of studies, although hospitalisations varied significantly. 50% (6/12) of studies reported higher hospitalisation rates in urban areas and 5/12 studies reporting higher rates in rural areas. 86% (6/7) of studies demonstrated higher mortality rurally and symptom burden was higher amongst rural residents in 67% (4/6) of studies; however, the majority of these were conducted in the USA. This review highlights consistent rural-urban inequalities in COPD prevalence and outcomes, reflecting the impact of healthcare inequities, socioeconomic deprivation and environmental exposures on COPD burden in rural areas. Targeted interventions promoting equitable healthcare access, health education, transition to cleaner fuels and rural access to smoking cessation and pulmonary rehabilitation services are essential to mitigate these disparities and improve outcomes in rural populations.