Charcoal rot in sesame: infection biology, host resistance mechanism, and genomic-enabled strategies for durable resistance breeding.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a globally important oilseed crop, but its production is constrained by charcoal rot, caused by the soil-borne fungus Macrophomina phaseolina. The pathogen's exceptionally broad host range, long-term soil persistence through microsclerotia, and increased aggressiveness under high temperature and drought make charcoal rot a major destructive constraint in sesame-growing regions. This review integrates current knowledge on the biology, epidemiology, infection processes, and genetic population variability of Macrophomina spp. in relation to charcoal rot development in sesame. We also summarize key host resistance mechanism including pathogen perception, cell wall reinforcement, phenylpropanoid-mediated defense, antioxidant responses, and associated physiological and molecular adaptations. Particular attention is given to the challenges of resistance screening under variable environmental conditions, including heat- and drought-associated disease expression and pathogen diversity, which complicate the identification of stable resistance sources. The review further examines progress in sesame improvement through germplasm characterization, mutation breeding, interspecific introgression, high-throughput phenotyping, and genomic-assisted approaches such as QTL mapping, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), marker-assisted selection, genomic selection, and functional validation. Integrating these tools with multi-omics and gene-editing strategies offers a promising route for accelerating the development of durable, climate-resilient charcoal rot resistance cultivars. Broader use of diverse germplasm, standardized multi-environment phenotyping, and international collaboration will be essential for sustainable resistance breeding and future sesame production.