Advancements in nanomedicines for cancer therapy: targeting molecular signaling pathways, activating immune cells, and using photothermal immunomodulation.

Nanoparticles are known for their unique physicochemical characteristics and large surface area. When these nanoparticles are functionalized with bioactive molecules or proteins, they enable highly efficient and targeted applications in cancer therapy. Early applications of nanotechnology in cancer treatment have centered on the properties of various nanomaterials, including organic, inorganic, and biological nanoparticles. For instance, stability, large-scale synthesis, and potential toxicity are crucial determinants of the use of nanotechnology in cancer treatment. For specific intervention, nanotechnology has focused on targeting dysregulated cancer signaling pathways. Concurrently, reprogramming tumor-associated macrophages, activating T and natural killer cells, and modulating cytokine profiles have become key components of nano-immunotherapy in combating tumor growth. Biomimetic nanotechnology, particularly nanoparticles wrapped in cancer cell membranes and photothermal immunotherapy based on two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, has shown potential as a new approach for cancer immunotherapy. Nevertheless, specific gaps in combination therapy, such as dose optimization and safety considerations, remain to be addressed in translational research. This review highlights mechanistic insights into nanoparticles that modulate cellular signaling pathways and activate immune cells, emphasizing 2D material-based nano-immune delivery systems as promising next-generation cancer treatments, with particular emphasis on photothermal therapy that could advance from preclinical to clinical settings.