High-tech, high-touch physical education: drone soccer as a sustainable sport activity for sport-marginalized students.

Introduction: Digital technologies in school physical education (PE) may broaden participation and social interaction, particularly for students marginalized in traditional sport-based PE. However, qualitative evidence remains limited regarding how technology-based team sports such as drone soccer shape students' motivational and relational experiences and how teachers' pedagogical practices evolve during implementation. This study examined how a school-based drone soccer program shaped students' motivational and relational experiences in PE, with particular attention to sport-marginalized students. It also explored changes in teachers' pedagogical practices and beliefs. Methods: A qualitative multiple-case study design was employed to examine commonalities and contrasts across two school contexts. The drone soccer program was implemented as part of a district-led digital PE initiative in one girls' and one boys' middle school in Busan, South Korea. The program followed a standardized curriculum and was delivered over 6 weeks, with 1 weekly session consisting of two consecutive class periods (12 class periods total). Data were generated through semi-structured interviews with six purposefully selected students and three teachers, field observations, and document analysis, and were analyzed using inductive category analysis with cross-case comparison. Results: Across both schools, learning progressed from basic drone-control training to role-differentiated gameplay and preparation for an inter-school tournament, creating multiple participation pathways through differentiated roles. In the girls' school, initial anxiety and hesitant participation shifted toward supportive peer interaction and a student-led practice culture. In the boys' school, an initially competition-oriented climate evolved into more deliberate teamwork and strategy sharing. In both contexts, sport-marginalized students assumed core roles and reported increased engagement, enhanced perceived competence and self-efficacy, and stronger peer connections through sustained collaboration and shared goals. Teachers described an expanded instructional orientation toward technology-integrated and more inclusive PE, emphasizing role design, scaffolding, and team processes. Conclusions: Drone soccer appears to offer a feasible "high-tech, high-touch" team-based PE approach that may enhance motivational quality, belonging, and socially meaningful participation, particularly for sport-marginalized students, while supporting shifts toward more inclusive and technology-integrated pedagogical practices. Conceptually, the findings suggest that redesigning participation structures through role differentiation may broaden legitimate forms of contribution in school PE.