The interaction between microbes and cytokines in cancer: unraveling the underlying effects.

An increasing number of studies have found that microbes are involved in the development and treatment of tumors, and the impact of microbes on the tumor microenvironment has emerged as a prominent field in cancer studies. Although microbiome–immunity interactions in cancer have extensively reviewed in previous studies, the molecular integration of microbes with cytokines within the tumor microenvironment remains insufficiently resolved. This review examines how microbes influence the immunological and inflammatory regulatory systems in cancer. The activation of important signaling axes, such as IL-6/STAT3, TNF-α/NF-κB, and interferon pathways, by microbial components and metabolites (LPS, SCFA, and EPS) changes immune surveillance, encourages immune evasion, and affects the spread of metastases. Recent studies indicate that Microbiota-induced alterations in cytokine signaling increasingly influence cancer immunotherapy, suggesting that microorganisms and their metabolites may emerge as potential targets for novel anti-tumor immunotherapy. Evidences from multiple cancer types, combined with studies on specific non-malignant diseases, reveals synergistic alterations in microbial communities and cytokine networks. These interactions form a microbe-cytokine axis linking inflammation, tumor progression, and treatment response. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the interplay between microbial ecology and host cytokines may provide strategic guidance for enhancing precision cancer immunotherapy.