ArticleArchives of microbiology2026
Immunomodulatory effects of Spirulina extract and its gold nanoformulation enhance the macrophage polarization toward M1 phenotype via NF-kB signaling.
Article in Archives of microbiology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Macrophages play a crucial role in innate immunity, regulating inflammatory responses, maintaining tissue homeostasis, and providing immune defense against microbial infections and tumor pathogenesis. Reprogramming macrophages toward the desired functional states, M1/M2 phenotype, is an emerging strategy in immunotherapy, particularly in the context of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Spirulina, a blue-green alga, is rich in bioactive compounds and used as a health supplement. In this study, we explored the immunomodulatory potential of bioactive compounds derived from the commercially available Spirulina and its gold nanoformulations (Sp-GNPs) for the first time using THP-1 monocytic cells. Comprehensive analysis through various biophysical techniques, such as spectroscopy, chromatography, DLS, Zeta potential, FTIR, and electron microscopy, revealed that the methanolic extract of Spirulina is rich in bioactive compounds, including fatty acids, amino acids, glycerol derivatives, and diterpenoids, whereas Sp-GNP exhibited high colloidal stability and surface capping by native biomolecules. Spirulina extract significantly upregulated the expression of M1 signature markers, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, iNOS, CD80 and CD86, whereas M2-associated markers (IL-10, TGF-β, and STAB-1) remained unchanged in THP-1 macrophages. Intriguingly, Spirulina-derived gold nanoparticles (Sp-GNPs) enhanced the major M1-associated markers such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8, while simultaneously suppressing IL-10 and STAB-1, indicating their immunostimulatory effects. Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR-2) blockade revealed that Spirulina extract appears to stimulate the NF-κB/MYD88/TLR-2 axis for M1 polarization, and Sp-GNPs induced NF-κB activation via a TLR-2-independent pathway, highlighting a divergent signaling mechanism driven by gold nanoparticles. These findings highlight the potential of Spirulina and its gold nanoformulations as immunomodulators for reprogramming the innate immune system and suggest promising translational value mainly in cancer therapy.
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