Current trends, applications, and challenges in three-dimensional bioprinting for cardiovascular disease models and therapies.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of death worldwide. Although conventional treatments such as surgery and transplantation have improved patient survival, they are subject to major limitations. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting presents new opportunities for treating CVDs, with the long-term objective of fabricating functional tissues that faithfully replicate native cardiac structure and key physiological functions, including contractile force, electrical conduction, and mechanical integrity. This review outlines the use of 3D bioprinting in modeling principal cardiac disorders, such as arrhythmias, structural heart defects, myocardial infarction, cardiac fibrosis, and heart failure. It further assesses the utility of bioprinting in developing disease models and advancing clinical therapies for these conditions. Finally, we address the ongoing challenges in implementing bioprinting and cardiac tissue engineering for CVDs and suggest possible avenues for improvement. Future studies should prioritize clinical translation and long-term follow-up to evaluate the durability and viability of bioprinted cardiac tissues.