Prevalence and risk factors of zoonotic diseases on the human-wildlife-livestock interface in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces, South Africa.

Zoonotic diseases pose a significant threat to food security, rural livelihoods, and public health in Southern Africa, where frequent interactions among humans, livestock, and wildlife facilitate disease spillover. This study investigated the prevalence and risk factors of zoonotic diseases among smallholder livestock farmers in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. Primary data were collected from 155 farmers using a structured questionnaire, and the analysis combined descriptive statistics with a multivariate probit model. The findings revealed notable vulnerabilities. Only 2% of farmers had ever tested their livestock for zoonotic diseases, while 9% reported livestock abortions, a potential indicator of reproductive zoonoses. Risky consumption behaviors were common: 32% of farmers consumed raw milk, 17% raw meat, and 9% raw eggs. Reliance on unsafe water sources was widespread, with 60% depending on rivers and 6% on dams for livestock water. Awareness of zoonotic diseases was very limited, as 44% of respondents could not identify any associated risk factors, and 24% cited restricted access to information. Poor biosecurity practices were reported by 22% of farmers, while 16% had direct contact with wildlife and 19% consumed wildlife products, further elevating exposure risks. The multivariate probit model identified significant predictors of zoonotic risk, including goat ownership, hunting and trapping, raw animal-product consumption, age, gender, and education. Strengthening veterinary surveillance, expanding farmer awareness programmes, and investing in safe water infrastructure are critical to reducing zoonotic transmission at the human-wildlife-livestock interface.