Terrestrial Plant- and Algal-Derived Biostimulants as Modulators of ROS and Hormone Networks in Crop Abiotic Stress Resilience.

Abiotic stresses severely constrain crop productivity by disrupting cellular redox homeostasis and hormone signaling. Although individual stresses differ in origin, plant responses converge on a conserved regulatory system centered on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phytohormone crosstalk. Controlled ROS production in chloroplasts, mitochondria and the apoplast functions as a signaling mechanism that interacts dynamically with abscisic acid, auxin, ethylene, jasmonate and cytokinin pathways through shared regulatory nodes, including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases and redox-sensitive transcriptional cascades. Endogenous metabolites, including phenolics, terpenoids, carotenoids, alkaloids, polyamines, glutathione and signaling peptides, are embedded within this network and modulate its amplitude and sensitivity. In parallel, non-microbial biostimulants derived from seaweeds, higher plants, protein hydrolysates and humic substances have been widely reported to enhance crop performance under abiotic stress. However, mechanistic integration between biostimulant research and plant stress signaling remains limited. In this review, we propose that terrestrial plant- and algal-derived biostimulants act not as external substitutes for hormones or antioxidants but as modulators of endogenous ROS-hormone signaling hubs. We first synthesize the current understanding of redox-hormone integration under abiotic stress, then examine endogenous metabolites as intrinsic regulators of this network, followed by an analysis of biostimulants in relation to shared regulatory nodes. By positioning biostimulant action within the established redox-hormone network, we provide a mechanistic framework that links stress biology with agronomic application and supports rational strategies to enhance crop resilience.