ArticleFrontiers in public health2026
Food delivery services for enhancing participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in the United States: bridging the WIC-eligible access gap.
Article in Frontiers in public health, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Background: Diet-related health disparities among U.S. children persist despite the availability of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) benefits to eligible women, infants, and children. Participation remains suboptimal: only 51.2% of eligible individuals were enrolled in 2021. Transportation and food-environment constraints pose salient barriers, especially for caregivers of infants in food deserts. Emerging online ordering and delivery options may reduce access frictions, but grocery delivery coverage is limited, and fees are often not covered by benefits. Methods: We linked USDA Food and Nutrition Service state-level WIC participation data (November 2024 vs. September 2025) with demographic, economic, and political indicators to examine whether food retail delivery availability is associated with changes in WIC participation and whether this association varies by poverty and unemployment context. Delivery availability was coded as a binary indicator based on state announcements of online ordering/delivery pilots. Descriptive statistics characterized cross-state variation. Ordinary least squares models with robust standard errors were used to test associations, including an interaction between delivery availability and the poverty and unemployment rates; marginal predictions visualized the interaction. Results: Only 2 of 50 states (4%) had active WIC online ordering/delivery options during the study window. The average percentage change in participation rate was modest (mean = 1.23; SD = 2.70). In the baseline model, the poverty rate was positively associated with the change in participation ( Conclusion: WIC-eligible food delivery availability is associated with greater increases in participation in higher-poverty states or higher-unemployment states, suggesting that modernization can mitigate structural access barriers for families with young children. Policy actions, such as subsidizing delivery fees, expanding retailer participation, and providing digital access supports, could enhance equitable reach. Future work should leverage longitudinal and individual-level data to test mechanisms, evaluate fee-subsidy pilots, and assess heterogeneity by rurality, race/ethnicity, and family structure.
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