Strengths and constraints in ivory provenance research: La Beleña (Córdoba, Spain) as a case study.

This study presents a multidisciplinary analysis of 119 osseous and ivory fragments from the necropolis of La Beleña (Córdoba, Spain) dating between the second half of the 4th and the beginnings of the 3rd Millennium BC, aiming to assess the effectiveness and limitations of current methods used for identifying ivory provenance in prehistoric contexts. Traditional macroscopic and microscopic techniques were supplemented with biomolecular analyses, including Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and ancient DNA extraction (aDNA). Our results reveal significant challenges in raw material identification when based solely on morphological criteria, particularly in highly fragmented assemblages. FTIR analysis showed limited discriminatory capacity between ivory and bone, or between elephantid species. Ancient DNA yielded insufficient endogenous material for analysis. In contrast, ZooMS successfully identified all ivory samples as deriving from African elephants (Loxodonta) and corrected several prior misidentifications. Technological analysis indicates that both transverse and longitudinal tusk exploitation were used, with manufacturing techniques likely involving copper saws and bending. Ivory items were deposited as decorated finished objects, consistent with funerary practices at other Iberian Chalcolithic sites. These findings underscore the need to revise current protocols for ivory identification and provenance, and to expand open-access reference databases. The integration of biomolecular methods—especially proteomics—offers a more reliable path for tracing prehistoric exchange networks and understanding the cultural significance of ivory.