Disparities in childhood human capital investments in the United States.

We analyze data from 10 nationally representative surveys in the United States (2010-2023) to track public, private, and family time investments in children, all theorized to enhance human capital. Average per-child investments from birth to age 18 total $502,152 (2024 USD), with overall disparities by household income and race/ethnicity of 6% to 15%. Early childhood shows the largest gaps-often over 50%-driven mainly by housing and child care. Investment levels converge substantially around age five due to near-universal public schooling, which serves over 90% of children, compared with far lower access to publicly supported early care (roughly 25%) and housing subsidies (less than 5%). Like early childhood, though, later-childhood investments exhibit differences in the types of services and resources children from different backgrounds receive (e.g., compulsory versus compensatory education, office-based versus emergency health services, whole fruit versus fruit juice). Accounting for parent and family time-focused investments (e.g., informal educational activities, meals) narrows disparities by income and race/ethnicity when valued at a constant wage. Disparities increase 50-100% when valued at caregivers' age- and education-specific wages, likely overstating differences in the quality of family time.