ArticleFrontiers in immunology2026
Long-term humoral and cellular immune responses following Covaxin vaccination: a 2-year prospective longitudinal study.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Background: Globally, multiple SARS-CoV-2 vaccines received emergency authorization, primarily based on adenoviral vector, mRNA, or inactivated virus platforms. Among them, Covaxin, an inactivated vaccine, was widely used in India and several Southeast Asian countries. Due to their emergency rollout in 2021, the long-term immunogenicity data to assess the impact of these vaccinations have been limited. This study investigated the prolonged immune responses induced by Covaxin, an inactivated virus-based COVID-19 vaccine, in 250 individuals monitored for 2 years. Methods: This longitudinal study (January 2021-January 2023) tracked 250 participants, collecting blood at seven time points. We measured SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD IgG and neutralizing antibodies using ECLIA and surrogate virus neutralization tests, respectively. We also assessed cellular immunity in a subset of Covaxin recipients through flow cytometry of spike protein-stimulated lymphocytes. Results: Anti-RBD IgG levels declined rapidly post-vaccination. A significant rise was observed following Omicron infection, with sustained high antibody titers and high virus neutralization capacity. Covaxin recipients demonstrated high CD4 Conclusions: Overall, this study provides one of the first longitudinal analyses of the humoral and T-cell responses to Covaxin, a vaccine widely administered in India and neighboring Southeast Asian countries.
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