Detecting gaps between urban expansion and lighting infrastructure growth using daytime and nighttime satellite imagery.

Characterizing the evolution of urban settlements is vital for informed urban planning that mitigates associated risks. Urban development has traditionally been examined in two dimensions using Earth observation: land cover change, monitored through daytime optical remote sensing, and lighting infrastructural change, observed using nighttime remote sensing. However, these two types of change have often been analyzed in isolation, limiting a comprehensive understanding of their combined impacts on urbanization. This study bridges this gap by simultaneously analyzing monthly Black Marble nighttime light (NTL) data and World Settlement Footprint data to compare lighting and urban land cover change in the Mediterranean region. Our findings reveal that 80% of urbanization-associated pixels display either urban land expansion or lighting growth, but not both. Confusion matrix highlights regional variations: commission errors are particularly high in West Asia (74%), indicating increases in nightlights driven by densification or road improvements without corresponding land conversion. Conversely, omission errors are higher in Western Europe (52%) and North Africa (47%), where urban land expansion occurs without observable lighting infrastructure growth, reflecting phenomena such as informal settlement growth, industrial infill, and energy-saving practices. This study enhances our understanding of the urbanization process through satellite observations, emphasizing the need for a more comprehensive monitoring approach that captures the diverse dimensions of urban growth.