Engineering organic, inorganic, carbon, and hybrid materials for skin cancer theragnostic: a focus on melanoma and non-melanoma.

Melanoma, a significant global health challenge, is characterized by high metastatic potential and mortality. This review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of recent advancements in theragnostic materials for melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. We discuss the development of activatable probes targeting biomarkers like tyrosinase, hydrogen peroxide, and reactive oxygen species, which offer superior photostability, specificity, and deep tissue penetration. Dual-locked designs further enhance tumour selectivity. Innovations in near-infrared (NIR) molecular imaging, using organic fluorophores like BODIPY, cyanine, and rhodamine, enable non-invasive, real-time tumour visualization. Polymeric nanoparticles, microneedle patches, hydrogels, and semiconducting polymer nanodots improve stability, controlled release, and skin penetration, making them critical for both diagnosis and therapy. Hybrid organic-inorganic systems combine the targeting precision of organic dyes with the enhanced photothermal and photodynamic properties of inorganic materials, enabling multimodal imaging and therapeutic synergy. Despite these advancements, challenges such as off-target activation, rapid clearance, aggregation, and long-term biosafety must be addressed to optimize these materials for clinical applications in skin cancer theragnostic.