ReviewFrontiers in immunology2026
A comprehensive review of mechanisms underlying resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors.
Review in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 1 paper.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
1 citing paper in PubMed.
- Current Insights into the Role of Peripheral Blood Immune Cell Phenotypes in Resistance to Cancer Therapies.Oncology research · 2026Review
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
5 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the management of multiple malignancies, offering durable clinical benefit in a subset of patients. However, the emergence of distinct response patterns has revealed two major challenges: primary resistance, observed in patients who fail to respond from the outset, and acquired resistance, which develops after an initial period of disease control. These two resistance phenotypes likely arise from divergent biological mechanisms, involving both tumour-intrinsic and tumour-extrinsic factors. A comprehensive understanding of these processes is essential to optimize therapeutic strategies, particularly through rational combinations of ICIs with novel immunomodulators, targeted therapies, or conventional treatments. In this review, we provide an integrative overview of the key molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying both primary and acquired resistance to ICIs, encompassing alterations in antigen presentation, interferon signalling, oncogenic and metabolic pathways, as well as immune exclusion within the tumour microenvironment. We also highlight emerging predictive biomarkers of response and resistance-ranging from genomic and transcriptomic signatures to soluble immune checkpoints and non-immune circulating markers-aimed at refining patient selection and guiding personalized immunotherapy. Ultimately, deciphering these mechanisms will be pivotal for designing the next generation of immune-based combinations to overcome therapeutic resistance and expand the population of patients who can benefit from immune checkpoint blockade.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.