Species-specific interactions with apex carnivores yield unique benefits and burdens for mesocarnivores.

Mesocarnivores navigate a complex risk-reward continuum in ecosystems shared with their apex counterparts, balancing scavenging opportunities with risks of mortality. However, the risks to mesocarnivores in multi-carnivore systems are not uniform; they can vary with specific apex-meso pairings. Using remote cameras and GPS-telemetry, we examined space-use, temporal activity, fine-scale interactions, and scavenging behaviors of mesocarnivores (red foxes and coyotes) in relation to apex carnivores (wolves and cougars) in northern Yellowstone National Park, USA. Coyote space use was positively linked to wolf presence, while red fox space use was positively linked to cougar presence. Notably, photo-detection rates of mesocarnivores doubled within 24 h of apex carnivore detections-except for coyotes following cougars. Coyotes were more frequent scavengers at wolf and cougar kills than red foxes, but this behavior came at a cost. Over 60% of wolf-caused coyote mortalities were linked to wolf kill sites, though wolves rarely consumed the coyotes themselves. In contrast, cougars hunted and consumed coyotes as prey, posing an additional risk of predation. We interpret our findings in light of different hunting strategies and habitat preferences of canid and felid apex carnivores, which create distinct risks for mesocarnivores and drive species-specific behaviors that can influence trophic dynamics in multi-carnivore systems.