Trauma and economic displacement: psychological consequences and interventions among Venezuelan refugees in the Americas.

This review conceptualizes the Venezuelan refugee crisis as a form of war-like displacement produced by protracted economic collapse, institutional breakdown, and chronic insecurity rather than conventional armed conflict. Synthesizing epidemiological studies and humanitarian reports, it describes consistently elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and trauma-related symptoms among Venezuelan refugees and migrants across the Americas, with prevalences comparable to those observed in conflict-affected refugee populations. The article argues that cumulative exposure to pre-migration deprivation, life-threatening migratory routes such as the Darién Gap, and post-migration legal precarity and discrimination is best understood through ecological and continuous traumatic stress frameworks, which highlight chronic threat and social determinants of mental health. Finally, the review examines emerging evidence on low-intensity, community-based, and culturally adapted interventions, outlining promising scalable approaches as well as structural, systemic, and methodological barriers that currently limit access, effectiveness, and sustainability of care for Venezuelan refugees.