Oxidative stress and osmolyte induction caused by a Thiobencarb nano-emulsion in the freshwater alga Chlorella vulgaris.

Using nano-pesticides significantly affected risk evaluation. The risk evaluation was significantly affected by nano-pesticide use, as determined using the microalga Chlorella vulgaris. Thiobencarb (THIO) traditional and nano-emulsion formulations were applied with sub-lethal dosages to induce oxidative stress and osmolyte production in C. vulgaris. Three concentration levels were tested for 96 h on microalga for each traditional and nano formulation according to their median effective concentration EC50, 0.1 EC50, and 0.025 EC50. Every treatment significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the overall protein content in equivalence to the control (276.92 mg/g). Nonetheless, the treated cells had higher carbohydrate content than the control. Malondialdehyde (MDA) significantly increased (P < 0.05) in the treated cells. The antioxidant enzymes: catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and ascorbic peroxidase (APX) all markedly increased after treatment with both forms of THIO (P < 0.05) with respect to their controls. The osmolyte component, proline, increased considerably at the EC50 level of THIO (1.59 mg/g dry weight) in contrast to the control (0.71 mg/g dry weight) and the nano-derived form (0.79 mg/g). Furthermore, compared to the nano-derived version (2.84 mg/g), which corresponds to the control (1.36 mg/g), the same amount of THIO significantly increased the sucrose content (2.18 mg/g fresh weight).This work aims to investigate the toxic impacts of traditional and nano-forms of THIO on primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Before making decisions on nano-pesticide practices, all findings about bio-safety protocols for non-target species, such as algae, must be considered.