ArticleArchives of toxicology2026
Cross-continental venom narratives: proteo-transcriptomic insights into Hydrophis cyanocinctus of India and China.
Article in Archives of toxicology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Hydrophis cyanocinctus, annulated sea snake, is a widely distributed marine elapid whose venom composition and gene-expression architecture remain poorly characterized across its geographic range. Here, we present the first high-resolution proteo-transcriptomic profile of venom and venom gland of this species from India. This research underscores RNA-seq comparison of Indian and Chinese H. cyanocinctus venom gland gene expression to elucidate population-level variation in venom gland machinery, gene diversity, and other regulatory biology. LC–MS/MS profiling of Indian venom identified 2260 peptide hits corresponding to major elapid toxin families. Short-chain three-finger neurotoxins, and myotoxins, along with multiple long-chain neurotoxins, diverse phospholipase A₂ isoforms, and a suite of anti-hemorrhagic and PLA₂/metalloprotease inhibitors were detected, which likely mediate endogenous toxin regulation. Complementary RNA-seq, which generated 191 million reads from the Indian venom gland revealed 16,117 expressed genes. Differentially expressed genes uncovered 7644 up-regulated and 8557 down-regulated genes between populations, with 6089 consistently differentially expressed between HC of India (n = 1) and China (n = 3). Functional enrichment analysis revealed profound upregulation of pathways associated with translation, peptide biosynthesis, ribosome biogenesis, RNA processing, mitochondrial respiration, and ATP synthesis in the Indian population, indicating a hyperactive venom-production state with elevated bioenergetic investment. On the other hand, de novo RNA-Seq assembly and serpent-associated mining recovered ~ 63,000 hits, including expanded repertoires of SVMPs, PLA₂s, and neurotoxins with distinct patterns. Together, these findings demonstrate extensive proteomic and RNA-Seq diversification in H. cyanocinctus, revealing enhanced biosynthetic and metabolic activation in the Indian venom gland, and provide key insights into the venom profile of Indian annulated sea snake.
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