Low-Cost Custom-Built Flow Meters for Plant Hydraulic Conductance: Validation of Accuracy, Precision, and Reproducibility.

Measurement of xylem hydraulic conductance provides access to xylem hydraulic conductivity and vulnerability to cavitation, two key traits for assessing plant sensitivity to environmental stressors. We evaluated the performance of custom-built low-cost pressure drop flow meters through nearly 1200 measurements across devices, laboratories, reservoir heights (10, 25 and 45 cm, used to induce pressure head and drive water flux) and PEEK tubing of hydraulic contrasting resistances. Flow meters were interchangeable, with mean differences generally < 3.5% and never exceeding 5%, with 88.9% of comparative tests showing no significant difference. Under recommended conditions (25-45 cm pressure head, downstream-to-upstream pressure ratio ≈0.5), precision reached 1%-7% coefficient of variation. Accuracy, assessed against reference values obtained by water displacement, was also strong, with 68% of measurements deviating by < 5% from reference values and over 78% when measured at {greater than or equal to}25 cm. At 10 cm, performance declined because sensor deviations represented a larger fraction of pressure differential, and low-resistance PEEK tubing increased absolute but not relative error. Validated flow meters proved portable, affordable (≈2500 CAD), and reliable. Their low cost, open-source interface, and publicly available construction protocol make them accessible to laboratories with limited resources, enabling reproducible multi-laboratory studies of plant hydraulics and fostering international collaborations.