Autonomy in learning: Predictability modulates the beneficial effect of choice on memory.

When people are offered the opportunity to choose, they tend to learn better. However, the cognitive mechanisms of the beneficial effect of choice on memory remain to be further investigated. On the one hand, self-determination theory has proposed that choices themselves might be motivating in and of themselves, even when their consequences are not predictable. On the other hand, from a predictive coding perspective, choices facilitate learning because they enhance the prediction of upcoming information. To delve deeper into these two interpretations, we conducted two experiments using a learning task in which we independently manipulated choice and predictability. In Experiment 1, we included 55 participants, while Experiment 2 included 56 participants. In half of the blocks, participants could choose which object they wanted to see (choice), while in other blocks, the choices were made for them (no choice). Meanwhile, in half of the choice and no-choice blocks, they would always see the selected object (high-predictability), while in other blocks, they had a 50% chance to see the selected object (low-predictability). The memory accuracy was tested by a recognition task. In both experiments, we found that the facilitatory effect of choice on memory accuracy existed under both high and low predictability. However, this effect was smaller under low predictability. These findings provided evidence for both interpretations: choices enhance learning because they are motivating by themselves, meanwhile facilitating prediction processes. This study has important implications for education, urging teachers to offer choices to students and to satisfy students' needs in classroom settings.