Optimizing graphene-enhanced polycaprolactone scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Background: Polycaprolactone (PCL) is widely used in scaffold fabrication due to its biocompatibility and mechanical properties, yet its limited osteoinductive capability hinders effective bone regeneration. To address this, graphene (G) has been incorporated into PCL scaffolds to enhance bioactivity, mechanical strength, and osteogenic potential. Objective: This study evaluates the osteogenic efficacy of PCL/G composite scaffolds by analyzing osteocalcin (OCN) and osteopontin (OPN) expression and mineralization using Alizarin Red staining. Methods: Thirty-six adult male rabbits were randomized to four groups and evaluated on day 7, 14 and 21. The PCL/G scaffolds were fabricated using the solvent casting and particle leaching method. A left tibial incision was made and exposing the site for osteotomy. Scaffolds were implanted, and wounds closed. Expression of OCN and OPN were evaluated by immunochemistry and mineralization was evaluated by Alizarin Red staining. Results: The results indicate that increasing graphene concentration significantly enhances osteogenic activity, with 2.5 wt% graphene demonstrating the highest OCN and OPN expression, as well as superior calcium deposition. Conclusions: These findings highlight the potential of graphene-based scaffolds in promoting bone regeneration and accelerating clinical translation. Future research should focus on long-term in vivo studies and scaffold degradation kinetics to validate their effectiveness in maxillofacial bone defects due to oral cancer surgery.