Deep learning-based non-invasive profiling of tumor transcriptomes from cell-free DNA for precision oncology.

Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) profiling from liquid biopsies is increasingly adopted as a minimally invasive solution for clinical cancer diagnostic applications. Current methods for inferring gene expression from ctDNA require specialized assays or ultra-deep, targeted sequencing, which preclude transcriptome-wide profiling at single-gene resolution. Herein we jointly introduce Triton, a tool for comprehensive fragmentomic and nucleosome profiling of cell-free DNA (cfDNA), and Proteus, a multi-modal deep learning framework for predicting single gene expression, using standard depth (~30-120x) whole genome sequencing of cfDNA. By synthesizing fragmentation and inferred nucleosome positioning patterns in the promoter and gene body from Triton, Proteus reproduced expression profiles using pure ctDNA from patient-derived xenografts (PDX) with an accuracy similar to RNA-Seq technical replicates. Applying Proteus to cfDNA from four patient cohorts with matched tumor RNA-Seq, we show that the model accurately predicted the expression of specific prognostic and phenotype markers and therapeutic targets. As an analog to RNA-Seq, we further confirmed the immediate applicability of Proteus to existing tools through accurate prediction of gene pathway enrichment scores. Our results demonstrate the potential clinical utility of Triton and Proteus as non-invasive tools for precision oncology applications such as cancer monitoring and therapeutic guidance.