ArticleScientific reports2026
Deterministic and probabilistic health risk assessment of heavy metals in liquid herbal cough formulations from Western Uganda.
Article in Scientific reports, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
This study investigated the concentrations and human health risks (carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic) associated with heavy metals in liquid herbal cough formulations obtained from the Western Region of Uganda. Twelve brands of registered (government authority) herbal cough formulations from reputable pharmacies were obtained and analysed. The mixtures were acid digested prior to Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) analysis to quantify cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) in the herbal formulations, followed by human health risk assessment, using two different approaches: deterministic and probabilistic (Monte Carlo simulation). The results showed significant variations in heavy metal concentrations, with Cu, Fe, Ni, Cd, Pb, and Zn ranging from 0.020 to 1.272, not detected (ND) to 6.734, ND to 0.129, 0.002 to 0.051, ND to 0.190, and 0.043 to 0.527 mg/L, respectively, within the World Health Organization limit (WHO). Multivariate statistical analysis revealed that anthropogenic activities were the major source of heavy metal contamination. The hazard index (HI) values obtained ranged from 7.0 × 10
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