Exploring interactions of thermal, acoustic, and aesthetic environments on thermal experience in parks.

The thermal comfort of urban parks is crucial for residents' well-being and urban livability. There is limited research on the integration of different environmental factors in urban parks, with most studies focusing on hot, sunny days in summer. This study explored the interactions of multi-sensory factors, including thermal, acoustic, and aesthetic, on thermal experience in parks across various weather types. The results reveal that thermal conditions directly dominate thermal experience. Acoustic comfort has a relatively weak positive effect on thermal comfort, and this effect disappears under strong heat-stress conditions. Natural sounds help increase thermal acceptability, whereas mechanically dominated soundscapes have the opposite effect. Aesthetic satisfaction also contributes to higher thermal acceptability. Compared with blue spaces, aesthetic satisfaction with green spaces exerts a more consistently positive influence on thermal experience. The negative effect of PET is significantly weaker than the positive effects of perceived acoustic comfort and aesthetic satisfaction on overall satisfaction. The revealed multi-sensory interactions yield practical recommendations for urban planners and designers in addressing climate change and enhancing urban livability.