Development and explanation of electrocardiogram-based deep learning for predicting short-term mortality in heart failure patients.

Background: Heart failure mortality has risen sharply after years of decline, highlighting the limitations of current risk assessment tools in accuracy, complexity, and cost, and the need for improved predictive models. To address this gap, we developed and validated a deep learning model to improve short-term mortality prediction in heart failure patients. Methods: In this retrospective study, we leveraged the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV database to develop HF-ECGNet, combining an EfficientNet neural network and a Transformer architecture. We also developed a composite model integrating electrocardiogram-based (ECG) predictions and clinical features. We evaluated model performance using the area under the curve (AUC) and other metrics, with gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) and Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) analyses for interpretability. We conducted comparisons with N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) scores. Results: We analysed a total of 104 844 ECGs from 36 222 admissions. HF-ECGNet achieved an AUC of 0.664 for the first ECG during initial admission, improving to 0.721 for the last ECG. Incorporating three-day ECG data further enhanced performance, with AUCs of 0.691 (first admission) and 0.698 (last admission). HF-ECGNet outperformed NT-proBNP and SOFA. A composite model integrating ECG data and clinical features achieved the highest AUC of 0.725. Grad-CAM identified critical ECG patterns, while SHAP analysis highlighted ECG-derived features as the most influential predictors. Conclusions: HF-ECGNet demonstrates potential as a powerful tool for predicting short-term mortality in heart failure patients. Its innovative architecture and integration of clinical data enable more accurate and interpretable risk stratification. Future multi-centre validation is the critical step to fully ascertain its clinical utility and generalisability.