ArticlebioRxiv : the preprint server for biology2026
Brain Age in Conduct Disorder:: A Mega-Analysis of the ENIGMA Antisocial Behavior Working Group.
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101 authors.
Jules R DugréDepartment of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-4946-0350
Yidian GaoCentre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-5979-2677
Marlene StaginnusDepartment of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-4739-6271
Abigail A MarshDepartment of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States.ORCID 0000-0001-5635-181X
Alexandra Kypta-VivancoDepartment of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.
Ana I CubilloDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Basel, Psychiatric University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.ORCID 0000-0001-5657-7341
Andrea DietrichAccare Child Study Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-2538-6136
Anka BernhardDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.ORCID 0000-0001-8864-1360
Anne MartinelliDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt am Main, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
Anouk H DykstraDepartment of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
Areti SmaragdiScaling, Research and Development, Child Development Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada.ORCID 0000-0002-6083-3712
Arjun SethiDepartment of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, The Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0001-5352-4164
Arun L W BokdeTrinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.ORCID 0000-0003-0114-4914
Barbara FrankeDepartment of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center.ORCID 0000-0003-4375-6572
Celso ArangoHospital Universitario La Paz, IdiPAZ, School of Medicine, Universidad Autonóma de Madrid, CIBERSAM, Madrid, Spain.ORCID 0000-0003-3382-4754
Charlotte P S BoatengLUMC Curium, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Christina StadlerDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Basel, Psychiatric University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.ORCID 0000-0003-2178-0635
Christine M FreitagDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt am Main, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.ORCID 0000-0001-9676-4782
Christopher D TownsendCentre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
Christopher S MonkDepartment of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.ORCID 0000-0001-9391-4669
Cindy C HaganCalifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-4576-7120
Colter MitchellInstitute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.ORCID 0000-0001-9560-1199
Daifeng DongMedical Psychological Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.ORCID 0000-0002-6527-6388
Dana E DíazDepartment of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.
Daniel BrandeisDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany.
Declan MurphyThe Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-6664-7451
Denis G SukhodolskyChild Study Center, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-5401-792X
Edmund J S Sonuga-BarkeSchool of Academic Psychiatry, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-6996-3935
Elise M CardinaleDepartment of Psychology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-5117-6124
Essi VidingDivision of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0001-8468-8874
Gregor KohlsDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.ORCID 0000-0003-2408-2939
Gunter SchumannCentre for Population Neuroscience and Stratified Medicine (PONS), Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany and The Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-inspired Intelligence (ISTBI), Fudan University, Shanghai, China.ORCID 0000-0003-4905-5523
Harriet CornwellDepartment of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0001-8750-775X
Harriet PhillipsDivision of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0009-0000-4035-6528
Heidi B WestermanDepartment of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-0040-4382
Hui ChenDepartment of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and National Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
Ilyas Sagar-OuriaghliThe Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-3014-3104
Jack C RogersBirmingham Centre for Neurogenetics, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0003-2667-8867
Jan K BuitelaarDepartment of Medical Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0001-8288-7757
Jean-Luc MartinotINSERM U1299 "Developmental Trajectories & Psychiatry", ENS Paris-Saclay, Mathematics center Borelli UMR 9010, University Paris-Saclay, Gif sur Yvette; & Research department, Barthelemy Hospital, Etampes; France.ORCID 0000-0002-0136-0388
Jeffrey C GlennonSchool of Medicine, Conway Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.ORCID 0000-0002-2371-0422
Jiansong ZhouDepartment of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and National Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.ORCID 0000-0003-2135-2139
Jibiao ZhangDepartment of Education, Jianghan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
Jilly NaaijenFaculty of Humanities, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-3455-9043
Josefina Castro-FornielesDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, 2021SGR01319, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, IDIBAPS, CIBERSAM, Department of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.ORCID 0000-0003-0632-2687
Kalina J MichalskaDepartment of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-4830-5036
Karen Gonzalez-MadrugaDepartment of Psychology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-7586-7536
Karim IbrahimChild Study Center, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-8205-6723
Kate SullySchool of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom.
Kathryn BerlutiDepartment of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-2828-6349
Kerstin KonradARA-BRAIN Institute II, Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH and RWTH Aachen, Juelich, Germany.ORCID 0000-0001-9039-2615
Kim LamersDepartment of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
Leah E MycueCognitive Neuroscience, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
Luca PassamontiUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.ORCID 0000-0002-7937-0615
Luke W HydeDepartment of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-5947-7896
Maaike OosterlingBehavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-7294-8680
Maria Jose Penzol AlonsoDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, IiSGM, CIBERSAM, ISCIII, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.ORCID 0000-0002-6317-9138
Michael C StevensOlin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Hartford, CT, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-3799-5465
Michael CraigDepartment of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, The Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-5311-8673
Mireia Rosa-JusticiaChild and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.ORCID 0000-0003-4494-0785
Montana L PloeDepartment of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-3907-6905
Nathalie HolzDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany.ORCID 0000-0002-6225-9267
Nic J A van der WeeDepartment of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-3235-1633
Nicola ToschiUniversity of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy.ORCID 0000-0003-1929-5833
Nimrah JabeenCentre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
Nora M RaschleJacobs Center for Productive Youth Development at the University of Zurich, Department of Psychology, Zurich, Switzerland.ORCID 0000-0002-3160-5999
Olivier F ColinsSpecial Needs Education, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium.ORCID 0000-0001-9532-2544
Paramala SantoshInstitute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neurosciences, King's College London, and the Maudsley Hospital, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0003-4830-5893
Pascal-M AggensteinerDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany.ORCID 0000-0002-1048-9044
Pieter J HoekstraAccare Child Study Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0001-7260-4119
Qingsen MingDepartment of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China.
Qiong WuDepartment of Neurology, Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.
Rebecca L JacksonDepartment of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.
Ren MaMedical Psychological Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
Robert J R BlairChild and Adolescent Mental Health Center, Copenhagen University Hospital and Mental Health Services CPH, Copenhagen, Denmark.ORCID 0000-0002-6377-2361
Robert VermeirenLUMC Curium, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-8673-2207
Ruth PauliCentre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
Ruth RobertsDivision of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
S Alexandra BurtORCID 0000-0001-5538-7431
Sahil BajajDepartment of Cancer Systems Imaging, Division of Diagnostic Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-0629-6036
Sally C ChesterCentre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0003-1715-9643
Silvia MinosseUniversity of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy.ORCID 0000-0002-9921-6287
Sylvane DesrivieresSocial, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-9120-7060
Tobias BanaschewskiDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany.ORCID 0000-0003-4595-1144
Ulrike M E SchulzeDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.ORCID 0000-0002-6350-5140
Xianliang ChenDepartment of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and National Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
Xiaoping WangDepartment of Psychiatry, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, and National Center for Mental Disorders, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
Xiaoqiang SunMedical Psychological Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
Yali JiangDepartment of Psychology, School of Education Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, China.ORCID 0000-0003-4786-0465
Neda JahanshadImaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-4401-8950
Sophia I ThomopoulosImaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-0046-4070
Christopher R K ChingImaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0003-2921-3408
Melody J Y KangImaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0001-9467-0715
Paul M ThompsonImaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States.ORCID 0000-0002-4720-8867
Daniel S PineNational Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program (NIMH-IRP), Bethesda, MD, United States.
Arielle Baskin-SommersDepartment of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.ORCID 0000-0001-6773-0508
Charlotte A M CecilDepartment of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-2389-5922
Moji AghajaniDepartment of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-2040-4881
Graeme FairchildDepartment of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0001-7814-9938
ENIGMA Antisocial Behavior Consortium
Stephane A De BritoBirmingham Centre for Neurogenetics, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.ORCID 0000-0002-9082-6185
Funding
ABCD-USA Consortium: Coordinating CenterU24DA041147 · NIDA · UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO · PI SANDRA A BROWN, TERRY L. JERNIGAN · 2015 to 2026
$54.7MABCD-USA Consortium: Data Analysis, Informatics and Resource CenterU24DA041123 · NIDA · UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO · PI ANDERS M DALE · 2015 to 2026
$51.5MFragile Families and the Transition to AdulthoodR01HD036916 · NICHD · PRINCETON UNIVERSITY · PI Kathryn Edin, Jane Waldfogel · 1999 to 2026
$46.3MfMRI Studies Of Pediatric Mood And Anxiety DisordersZIAMH002781 · NIMH · NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH · PI PINE, DANIEL · 2009 to 2025
$41.5MAdolescent Substance Use Initiation: Disentangling neurocognitive risks from consequences using longitudinal and genetically-informed methodsU01DA041120 · NIDA · UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA · PI Monica Luciana, Sylia Wilson · 2015 to 2026
$34.5MABCD-USA Consortium: Research ProjectU01DA041089 · NIDA · UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO · PI Joanna Jacobus, Susan F. Tapert · 2015 to 2026
$31.7MProspective Research Studies of Maturation (PRISM)- Research ProjectU01DA041134 · NIDA · UTAH STATE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM--UNIVERSITY OF UTAH · PI ERIN MCGLADE, PERRY FRANKLIN RENSHAW · 2015 to 2026
$29.2MABCD-USA CONSORTIUM: RESEARCH PROJECTU01DA041048 · NIDA · CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL OF LOS ANGELES · PI Megan Marie Herting, ELIZABETH R SOWELL · 2015 to 2026
$28.7MABCD-USA Consortium: Research ProjectU01DA041106 · NIDA · UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AT ANN ARBOR · PI Mary M Heitzeg, Chandra Sekhar Sripada · 2015 to 2026
$24.9MFIU-ABCD: Pathways and Mechanisms to Addiction in the Latino Youth of South FloridaU01DA041156 · NIDA · FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY · PI Raul Gonzalez, Angela R Laird · 2015 to 2026
$22.8MABCD-USA Consortium: Research ProjectU01DA041148 · NIDA · OREGON HEALTH & SCIENCE UNIVERSITY · PI Damien A Fair, Rebekah S Huber · 2015 to 2026
$22.3MABCD-USA: NYC Research ProjectU01DA041174 · NIDA · YALE UNIVERSITY · PI Arielle Ryan Baskin-Sommers, Betty J Casey · 2015 to 2026
$19.7MIntramural NIH HHS ZIA MH002781NCATS NIH HHS KL2 TR001862NCATS NIH HHS TL1 TR001864NCRR NIH HHS KL2 RR031974NIA NIH HHS R56 AG058854NIBIB NIH HHS U54 EB020403NICHD NIH HHS P30 HD040677NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD036916NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD039135NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD040421NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD066040NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD083881NICHD NIH HHS R01 HD093334NICHD NIH HHS R03 HD064906NICHD NIH HHS T32 HD007109NIDA NIH HHS R01 DA049238NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041022NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041025NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041028NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041048NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041089NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041093NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041106NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041117NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041120NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041134NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041148NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041156NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA041174NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA050987NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA050988NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA050989NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA051016NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA051018NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA051037NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA051038NIDA NIH HHS U01 DA051039NIDA NIH HHS U24 DA041123NIDA NIH HHS U24 DA041147NIH HHS S10 OD026738NIMHD NIH HHS U54 MD013368NIMH NIH HHS F31 MH131373NIMH NIH HHS K22 MH109558NIMH NIH HHS K23 MH070036NIMH NIH HHS K23 MH128451NIMH NIH HHS L30 MH124229NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH080956NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH081813NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH101514NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH103761NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH121079NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH129742NIMH NIH HHS R01 MH134004NIMH NIH HHS R21 MH139001NIMH NIH HHS T32 MH018268NIMH NIH HHS UH3 MH114249Wellcome Trust
Abstract
Conduct disorder (CD) is the leading global cause of mental health burden in children and adolescents and has recently been hypothesized to be a neurodevelopmental disorder. Although prior research has identified neuroanatomical differences associated with CD, it remains unclear whether these differences reflect atypical brain development. Here, we investigated the difference between an individual's brain age and chronological age as a proxy for variations in brain maturation. Using a pretrained model, we estimated brain age from structural neuroimaging data obtained from 1,119 youth with CD and 1,183 typically developing controls across 14 international cohorts participating in the ENIGMA-Antisocial Behavior Working Group. Youth with CD exhibited a statistically robust but small acceleration in brain age compared to typically developing youth (around 0.50 years), which was restricted to the adolescence-onset subtype of the disorder. Our large-scale, coordinated analysis provides the first evidence of accelerated neurodevelopment as a potential mechanism underlying CD.
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