When those who benefit most participate least: socioeconomic inequalities in the well-being returns to civic engagement.

Introduction: Voluntary associations are widely recognized as important sources of social connection and psychological well-being. Yet little is known about whether individuals from different socioeconomic status (SES) groups benefit equally from participation. Methods: Using data from the 2020 Canadian World Values Survey ( Results: Results show that individuals with higher SES are substantially more likely to belong to voluntary associations. However, the mental-health benefits of membership are not evenly distributed. Working-class respondents experience significantly larger gains in happiness and life satisfaction from additional memberships than service-class. Individuals with lower income reap more life satisfaction but not happiness from joining more associations, whereas people with less formal education gain more happiness but not life satisfaction than their higher-educated counterparts from joining more associations. Discussion: These findings reveal a mismatch: the groups that stand to gain the most from association participation are those least likely to join. Policies that reduce financial, informational, and structural barriers to participation may therefore yield disproportionate well-being benefits for disadvantaged populations.