ArticleBMC psychology2026
Cross-cultural study of religiosity, gratitude, and happiness: self-esteem as a mediator among Malaysian and Indonesian adults.
Article in BMC psychology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundHappiness is a central goal of human life and a core focus of positive psychology, yet its predictors and pathways often vary across different cultural contexts. Religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem have each been linked to happiness. However, little is known about how these constructs interact in collectivist societies, such as Malaysia and Indonesia. This study examines cross-cultural differences in happiness by investigating how religiosity and gratitude predict happiness, with self-esteem as a mediator, among Malaysian and Indonesian adults.
methodsA total of 739 adults (40.6% Malaysian and 59.4% Indonesian; age 18–72 years) were selected using a voluntary sampling method. Data were collected using a set of questionnaire-based surveys through a cross-sectional study and then analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM).
resultsReligiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem significantly predicted the happiness of Malaysian and Indonesian adults. Self-esteem partially mediated the association between religiosity, gratitude, and happiness. Multigroup analysis revealed cultural differences in the role of religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem in the two countries. Among Indonesian adults, religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem each showed a significant direct association with happiness. In contrast, in the Malaysian context, religiosity and gratitude contributed more strongly to self-esteem, which in turn predicted happiness.
conclusionsThis study highlights both shared and culture-specific pathways to happiness in Malaysia and Indonesia. Findings emphasise the role of cultural context in shaping psychological mechanisms of happiness and suggest that interventions may be more effective when tailored to the distinct ways religiosity and gratitude operate across societies.
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