ArticleNutrients2026
Food Label Readability and Consumption Frequency: Isolating Content-Specific Effects via a Non-Equivalent Dependent Variable Design.
Article in Nutrients, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
objectiveThis study investigates the association between consumers' perceived readability of Multiple Traffic Light (MTL) label print size-a theoretical structural gatekeeper for visual salience-and self-reported food consumption frequency in the United Kingdom. We aimed to disentangle the effect of label readability from label content. Using non-equivalent dependent variables (NEDVs), we tested whether the association is specific to unhealthy convenience foods and absent for healthy or unlabeled foods, while also examining heterogeneity across consumer subgroups.
methodsData from 8948 adults across four waves (2012-2018) of the UK Food and You Survey were analyzed. Cumulative link ordinal logistic regressions were employed to model the association between self-reported print size readability and the consumption frequency of four product types: pre-packaged sandwiches and pre-cooked meat (unhealthy, labeled targets), dairy (nutritionally advisable, labeled control), and fresh meat (unlabeled control). Models were adjusted for sociodemographic covariates, health behaviors, and survey wave fixed effects.
resultsThe findings reveal a content-specific and significant dynamic relationship exclusively for pre-packaged sandwiches. In 2012, a one-unit increase in readability was associated with a 9% decrease in the odds of frequent consumption (OR=0.91), consistent with a warning effect. However, by 2018, this relationship reversed to a 4% increase (OR=1.04), indicating that higher readability became associated with more frequent consumption. In contrast, a persistent null association was observed for pre-cooked meat, dairy, and fresh meat. Subgroup analyses for sandwiches indicated that the association with readability was strongest among less-engaged consumers.
conclusionsEmpirical evidence challenges the utility of a standardized approach to food labelling. The results suggest that the effectiveness of label salience is contingent not just on the consumer but on the product's context and the content of its message, highlighting the need for adaptive rather than uniform policy standards.
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