ArticleImaging neuroscience (Cambridge, Mass.)2026
Variable E-field properties of dual-site tACS with phase lags.
Article in Imaging neuroscience (Cambridge, Mass.), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Dual-site transcranial alternating current stimulation (ds-tACS) enables the modulation of interregional functional connectivity by introducing a phase lag between the stimulating currents. However, overlapping electric fields (E-fields), particularly in closely spaced cortical targets like the primary motor cortices (M1s), may unintentionally alter E-field characteristics and confound the interpretation of functional connectivity modulation. We aimed to systematically evaluate how different phase lags affect key E-field characteristics when using high-definition ds-tACS, particularly when targeting the M1s. We sought to determine which montage configuration best preserved stable E-field characteristics and investigated whether individualised montage selection could enhance control over E-field consistency. We used individualised finite-element method simulations based on MRI-derived head models to quantify the effects of different phase lags on E-field characteristics. E-field magnitude, normal component, spatial distribution, direction, and effective stimulation area were assessed for nine montages and eight phase lags. All E-field properties, including E-field peak magnitude, peak magnitude of the normal component, redistribution, difference to optimal direction, and effective area of stimulation, were modulated significantly across different phase lags for all tested montages. Furthermore, we found substantial inter-individual variability in all E-field properties. Individual selection of montages improved critical properties, particularly the E-field direction. In contrast to common assumptions, variations in the phase lag can significantly affect key E-field properties of high-definition ds-tACS. Therefore, we recommend considering modulations of the E-field characteristics when comparing physiological or behavioural effects of ds-tACS at different phase lags. Moreover, given the high inter-individual variability, we suggest the individualisation of montages to the most relevant E-field property.
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