ArticleBMC infectious diseases2026
An underestimated risk? Analysis of outdoor malaria transmission in an urban area of Southern Benin.
Article in BMC infectious diseases, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundInsecticidal pressure on Anopheles gambiae sensu lato populations has contributed not only to the selection of physiological resistance mechanisms but also to behavioral adaptations, including shifts in biting and resting patterns. Within this framework, we compared the transmission of malaria by Anopheles gambiae s.l. between indoor and outdoor households in the commune of Porto-Novo in southern Benin.
methodsFrom April to September 2019, human landing catches were conducted indoors and outdoors in four neighborhoods of Porto-Novo to assess the risk of malaria transmission outside households. Mosquitoes were morphologically identified, and An. gambiae s.l. specimens were screened through PCR for species identification, and CSP-ELISA for Plasmodium infection. An electronic survey conducted in five neighborhoods, assessed mosquito net ownership and sleeping habits. The data were analyzed via R software.
resultsA total of 6,201 mosquito specimens mainly mainly composed of Cx. quinquefasciatus (55.6%), Ma. africana (25.7%), and An. gambiae s.l. (16.2%) were collected. The human biting rates of An. gambiae s.l. were similar indoors and outdoors in Akron (3.87 [2.91–4.98] vs. 1.75 [1.16–2.53]), Hounsouko (2.13 [1.47–2.96] vs. 1.00 [0.57–1.63]), and Djassin (11.13 [9.63–12.80] vs. 9.94 [8.47–11.56]) but higher outdoors in Tokpota (13.5 [11.74–15.43] vs. 8.5 [7.12–10.01]) and Djegan-Daho (7.5 [6.22–9.00] vs. 3.5 [2.66–4.56]), indicating an exophagic trend. Plasmodium falciparum infections were found indoors in Tokpota (4.41% [1.64–9.36]), Djegan-Daho (3.57% [0.44–12.31]), and outdoors in Djassin (1.26% [0.15–4.47]), indicating an heterogeneous residual transmission. Among the 250 households surveyed, most owned and used mosquito nets, with 86% sleeping indoors and 14% outdoors.
conclusionThis study revealed site-specific variations in the biting behavior of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Plasmodium falciparum infection. Despite low infection rates, both indoor and outdoor biting indicate possible transmission within and around houses. Most of the surveyed households owned and used mosquito nets, although some residents still slept outdoors. These findings emphasize the need for context-specific control strategies that address both vector ecology and human behavior. CLINICAL TRIAL: Not applicable.
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